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TIPS
for International Speakers of English
VOCABULARY TIPS
DEVELOPING YOUR ENGLISH VOCABULARY
In expanding your English vocabulary, you want to avoid the confusion and embarrassment of misusing new words picked up arbitrarily or memorized from lists. It’s much better to build on the vocabulary you’re already comfortable with, expanding organically by becoming more familiar with new words that you come across in conversation and reading.
Here’s an unfortunate example of the misuse of vocabulary:
Incorrect use: He was cognitive of her report and regurgitated the details.
(‘Cognitive’ is a scientific term; ‘regurgitate’ means to vomit.)
Correct use: He was cognizant [aware] of her report and reiterated [again went over] the details.
For a minimum working English vocabulary, you’ll want to be familiar with all the words appearing in the weekly mass distribution magazines. Keep in mind, however, that the definition of a word is not always a reliable guide to its usage (the way it functions in actual communication). Once you notice it, be on the lookout for a new word—you’re bound to start hearing and seeing it all over. Get a feeling for the context in which it appears and how and to what purpose it’s being used. This way, you’ll automatically know when you’re ready to start using it yourself, and will do so with little or no error.
The following are some words with which you may want to become better acquainted:
[For full definitions, etymologies, usage and pronunciation (with sound), you may wish to check Merriam-Webster Online at www.m-w.com.]
Make sure you understand the definition of the word, can name one or more synonyms for it, and know the way the word is generally used. Then try making sentences using the word in as many different parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) as you can.
FOR INTERNATIONAL SPEAKERS—INDEED FOR NATIVE SPEAKERS—VOCABULARY IN ENGLISH IS A NEVER-ENDING CHALLENGE.
OF THE WORLD'S MANY GREAT LANGUAGES, ENGLISH HAS THE LARGEST BODY OF VOCABULARY. THIS PROVIDES ENGLISH SPEAKERS WITH A WEALTH OF SYNONYMS FROM WHICH TO CHOOSE.
The extensive range of available vocabulary can be a bane to new speakers of English. However, as you progress, you will discover it to be a boon. At first, it will be difficult to differentiate between close synonyms which may mean essentially the same thing, but have slight differences in definition or connotation or mood. However, as you become more familiar with English words, the vast choice turns into a powerhouse of tools for communication.
English derives originally from old Germanic tongues. However, when the invaders from Normandy conquered the British Isles in 1066, for Britons to get ahead socially and economically, it became necessary to know French (one of the so-called Romance languages, evolved from the Latin spoken by the occupying imperial Roman army). Global commerce and the invasion of the Internet pose similar reasons for international speakers learning English today.
One major aspect of duplicate vocabulary is that basic English words used for everyday affairs tend to derive from Old English, which is Germanic in origin. For example, the word 'food' is akin to Old German 'fodder'. However, another tier of similar vocabulary deriving from French, tends to be used on more formal, august occasions, or to suggest importance or prestige-for example, the French word (for kitchen) brought unchanged into English as 'cuisine'.
In fact, English has such a long and wide-ranging history that many other influences are also apparent. A few examples illustrate other types of parallel vocabulary:
I say casually that one of my associates is a doctor (Latin origin) and the other is a lawyer (Scandinavian origin). However, if I am speaking more formally and wish to upgrade my level of discourse (and my associates' prestige), the same sentence becomes: One of my associates is a physician (Greek origin) and the other is an attorney (French origin). The choice can be even more subtle. I can say she is 'sick' (German origin), but it may sound more poetic to say she is 'ill' (Scandinavian origin). I can simply say she is 'sad' (German origin), but it adds nuance to say she is 'melancholy' (French via Latin from Greek).
Thus, English has what few other languages require-an extensive, and very useful, thesaurus. A thesaurus ('treasury': Latin from Greek) is a dictionary of synonyms-words with similar meanings (a good one will also have antonyms-words with opposite meanings). Word-processing programs usually have a basic thesaurus built in; electronic dictionaries contain thesauri [plural] that are more comprehensive.
THERE IS A RICH ASSORTMENT OF SIMILAR VOCABULARY AVAILABLE TO SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH. IT IS ADVISABLE FOR INTERNATIONAL SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH TO CLARIFY THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN CLOSE SYNONYMS. THIS WILL ENABLE YOU TO BE MORE PRECISE IN TERMS OF MEANING, AND ALSO TO BE MORE EXPRESSIVE IN TERMS OF SUBTLETIES SUCH AS CONNOTATION, MOOD AND INNUENDO.
THERE IS A RICH ASSORTMENT OF SIMILAR VOCABULARY AVAILABLE TO SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH, ALLOWING A GREAT RANGE OF CHOICE IN TERMS OF PRECISION AND SUBTLETY. ALSO KEEP IN MIND THAT ENGLISH, ESPECIALLY WRITTEN ENGLISH, DOESN'T LIKE BORING REPETITION BUT PREFERS VARIATION IN VOCABULARY, ALMOST FOR ITS OWN SAKE. THERE IS A KIND OF VIRTUOSITY IN BEING ABLE TO WRITE OR SPEAK WITHOUT REPEATING THE SAME WORDS OR PHRASES.
For example, if you have already used the words 'for example,' you can switch to 'for instance' or 'as an example' in a following paragraph.
If you use 'accomplishment' in one sentence, you can switch to 'achievement' in a sentence that comes shortly after. Or switch from 'goal' to 'objective,' or from 'huge' to 'enormous,' or from 'marry' to an idiomatic expression like 'tie the knot,' etc.
An example of synonyms (words with similar meaning) used in the same sentence-
Boring: We all appreciated her very generous contribution, since members are not always so generous.
Better: We all appreciated her very generous contribution, since members are not always so magnanimous.
Note, however, that you must of course be careful about switching to synonyms with slightly different meanings or connotations.
AFTER YOU HAVE MASTERED THE BASIC VOCABULARY OF ENGLISH, DO CONTINUE TO DEVELOP YOUR UNDERSTANDING AND USE OF CLOSE SYNONYMS. A WIDER-RANGING CHOICE OF WORDS WILL ADD VARIETY, NUANCE AND FLAIR TO BOTH YOUR SPOKEN AND WRITTEN ENGLISH.
CLOSE HOMONYMS: WORDS THAT ARE SIMILAR IN SOUND BUT UNRELATED IN MEANING
Words that are similar in sound but unrelated in meaning can often be confusing to international speakers of English. The best thing to do to master them is to hear the word as distinctly as possible, while grasping its sense from the context in which it occurs.
For instance:
(The following sentences are deliberately redundant, to illustrate the word as used in different parts of speech.)
persecute—to subject to cruel or unfair treatment
Though they were persecuted so terribly, they survived persecution and, in time, flourished.
prosecute—to have someone tried in a court of law; to perform an activity
The District Attorney vowed to use all his prosecutorial resources to vigorously prosecute this case.
precede—to come, go, be or occur before someone or something else
The preceding administration set a precedent in regard to this matter.
proceed—to go on, continue, progress; to arise from something
They decided to proceed with the entire procedure despite the shorter deadline.
prescribe—to recommend a course of action or treatment as a remedy
The doctor prescribed a certain sedative, for which he wrote out a prescription.
proscribe—to prohibit something considered undesirable
Some cultures proscribe the drinking of alcohol, among other proscriptions.
As evident from these examples, in distinguishing close homonyms, it’s useful to pay particular attention to changes in word structure as well as differences in spelling.
TRAINING YOUR HEARING, A MOST USEFUL BUT UNDEREMPHASIZED DEVICE IN LANGUAGE LEARNING, WILL HELP APPRECIABLY IN DISTINGUISHING WORDS THAT SOUND SIMILAR BUT MEAN DIFFERENT THINGS.
CLOSE HOMONYMS 2:
CLOSE-SOUNDING WORDS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS
Words that are similar in sound but unrelated in meaning, or the same word appearing as different parts of speech, can often be confusing to international speakers of English. The best thing to do to master them is to hear the word as distinctly as possible, while grasping its sense and appropriate grammar from the context in which it occurs.
As with mastering words with similar pronunciation, it’s best to identify as many differences as possible and emphasize them.
Note that when part of speech changes, the number of syllables, and syllable stress, often changes as well. For example:
conscious—adjective (two syllables, emphasis on first syllable)
to be aware
consciousness—noun (three syllables, emphasis on first syllable)
awareness
conscience—noun (two syllables, emphasis on first syllable)
personal sense of right and wrong
conscientious—adjective (four syllables, emphasis on third syllable)
diligent
conscientiousness—noun (five syllables, emphasis on third syllable)
diligence
unconscionable—adjective (five syllables, emphasis on second syllable)
unacceptable, unreasonable
Also, be careful about suffix changes. For instance:
character—noun (a set of distinct qualities, particularly moral; someone portrayed in a play, novel or film)
He is a person of questionable character.
This play has only two characters.
characteristic—noun and adjective (a recognizable feature; typical)
Goodwill is a characteristic that is universally valued.
It is characteristic of him to work from behind the scenes.
As evident from these examples, in distinguishing close homonyms, it’s useful to pay particular attention to changes in word structure as well as differences in spelling.
TRAINING YOUR HEARING, A MOST USEFUL BUT UNDEREMPHASIZED DEVICE IN LANGUAGE LEARNING, WILL HELP CONSIDERABLY IN DISTINGUISHING WORDS THAT SOUND SIMILAR BUT MEAN DIFFERENT THINGS.
THE USES OF SLANG
SLANG EXPRESSIONS COME INTO BEING BECAUSE THERE ARE NO STANDARD WORDS THAT EMOTIONALLY EXPRESS WHAT PEOPLE WANT TO SAY. WORDS GET CHOSEN AND GIVEN CERTAIN MEANINGS. HENCE, LEARNING SLANG IS SOMETHING THAT TAKES EXPERIENCE, AND EXPERIENCE TAKES TIME.
Slang expressions are used in casual contexts only. Such expressions may have a variety of non-standard usages, some of which can be quite strong and may be considered objectionable. To participate fully and comfortably in society-to be able to understand subtle meanings and express subtle meanings-it is necessary to be familiar with the uses of slang.
It's a good idea to pay special attention when you hear people using slang expressions. After awhile, with repeated occurrences, you'll be able to sense the implied meanings. If you know the speaker fairly well, you might ask him or her to confirm that your understanding is correct. In conversation with friends, you may want to use new expressions for the first time-you'll be able to tell from their reaction whether or not you have used the expression appropriately.
Keep in mind that the word slang is never pluralized-you never say "slangs". The plural would be "slang expressions."
Also keep in mind that slang expressions are often short-lived-you don't want to seem "out of the loop" or old-fashioned by using slang that is out-of-date.
TO AVOID BEING MISJUDGED, BE SURE OF THE MEANING OF A SLANG EXPRESSION, AND THE APPROPRIATE SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES FOR ITS USE, BEFORE YOU USE IT.
THE USES OF SLANG: YOU HAVE TO BE EXACT
It's part of the nature of slang and idiomatic expressions to be exact-everyone who knows them says them in precisely the same way. If you are going to use these expressions, be sure and get them right.
For example, if you want to emphasize that something is obvious, you cannot say:
"It's as plain as the sun."
People may not recognize that you meant the expression:
"It's as plain as day."
You cannot say: "It's as plain as his nose."
Even if people understand your meaning, they'll know you're missing it, because the expression is:
"It's as plain as the nose on his [my, your, etc.] face."
REMEMBER, LEARNING SLANG IS SOMETHING THAT TAKES EXPERIENCE, AND EXPERIENCE TAKES TIME. TO AVOID BEING MISUNDERSTOOD (OR AN OBJECT OF OTHER PEOPLE'S AMUSEMENT), BE AS SURE AS YOU CAN OF THE EXACT WORDING OF A SLANG OR IDIOMATIC EXPRESSION (AND THE APPROPRIATE SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES FOR ITS USE) BEFORE YOU USE IT.
FUHGEDDABOUDIT
Having trouble identifying this word? Try FORGET-ABOUT-IT.
The above expression is an example of ‘elision’—the omission or slurring of vowels, consonants, syllables or words—a natural tendency of native speakers to clip and blend spoken language.
Elision is also what often accounts for the discrepancy between English spelling and pronunciation. ‘Wednesday,’ for example, is a contraction of what was originally ‘Odin's day,’ though now few modern English speakers even know who Odin is (a Viking god).
In any case, shortening and smoothing, especially of commonly used expressions, occurs frequently in natural languages.
Here are some examples:
gimme [give me]
whaddaya . . . ? [what do you . . . ?]
I dunno [I don’t know]
gehed [go ahead]
helluva [hell of a]
gotta [got to]
wanna [want to]
gonna [going to]
hafta [have to]
howarya [how are you?]
coulda [could have]
shoulda [should have]
woulda [would have]
mighta [might have]
Whole words can also be ‘elided.’ For instance:
Ya wanna go? [Do you want to go?]
As your hearing of English continues to improve, you’ll pick up these patterns and, no doubt in time, be using them like a native yourself.
SO, IN THE REAL WORLD, WHADDAYA GONNA DO IN REGARD TO STANDARD ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION? FUHGEDDABOUDIT!
SMALL DIFFERENCES IN THE COMPOSITION OF WORDS CAN ALTER MEANING
English words, as explained in previous tips, are structured according to a standard pattern: in general, the root of the word is its basic meaning, the prefix (the tag at the beginning of the word) alters the meaning, and the suffix (the tag at the end of the word) changes the word’s part of speech and can also change its meaning. In this manner, it is possible to have more than one configuration of a word with nearly identical definitions.
For example:
If a person is selfish, he considers only or primarily his own interest and wishes.
If a person is unselfish, he is not this way—not selfish. But this is all we know—we know he isn’t selfish, but we don’t know anything further. ‘Unselfish’ states what the person is not.
However, if a person is selfless, he is more than unselfish; not only doesn’t he consider his own interests first, he actually considers the interests of others first. ‘Selfless’ states what the person is.
In other words, both the prefix ‘un’ and the suffix ‘less’ make a word negative but, as you can see, not necessarily in the same way.
PAY ATTENTION TO WORD STRUCTURE AND HOW NATIVE SPEAKERS USE CLOSE SYNONYMS. THIS WILL ENABLE YOU TO BE MORE PRECISE IN TERMS OF MEANING, AND ALSO TO BE MORE EXPRESSIVE IN TERMS OF CONNOTATION, MOOD AND INNUENDO.
MIND (AS A VERB)
It often occurs in English that words which are neither slang nor idiomatic expressions have idiomatic usages—that is, extended meanings and applications beyond the basic definition. Some usages are regional, but others are commonly employed by native speakers in general.
One such word is ‘mind,’ especially when used as a verb.
For example:
to listen to and obey
Teenagers are known for not minding what their parents tell them to do.
to pay attention to
He knows what he’s talking about, they should mind what he’s saying.
to watch over
Can you mind the baby while I go shopping?
to be careful or cautious
Mind what you say to her, she gets upset easily.
to object
I don’t mind if he comes a little late.
AS WITH SLANG AND IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS, AS YOUR HEARING SKILLS IMPROVE, OVER TIME YOU’LL NOTICE ADDITIONAL AND MORE SUBTLE MEANINGS OF STANDARD WORDS. YOU’LL APPRECIATE THEIR CONTEXT AND PURPOSE AND BE ABLE TO EMPLOY THESE WORDS IN THEIR FULL RANGE OF USE.
WHEN WORDS DON’T MEAN WHAT THEY USUALLY DO
Most often, the word ‘should’ is a modal verb implying obligation or expectation. However, ‘should’ has other, more subtle functions, the most common of which is its use in conditional clauses implying conditions necessary for particular consequences to occur.
For example:
Should she get_ the promotion, she’ll be the second woman to join the team.
Note: when using ‘should’ in this way, the third person singular verb agreement rule does not apply to the co-verb—there is no ‘s’ in get, as there would be in:
If she gets the promotion, she’ll be the second woman to join the team.
What’s the difference between using ‘should’ and ‘if’?
The ‘should’ formulation suggests the action is feasible.
The ‘if’ formulation suggests the action is uncertain.
Which to use depends on which connotation you wish to suggest.
However, ‘if’ and ‘should’ are also used together, as in:
If you should go to the library, would you please return my book?
In this case, ‘should’ is not necessary, but is inserted for the purpose of softening the request.
Another unusual function of ‘should’ occurs (virtually always with the pronoun ‘I’) when it is used instead of ‘would’ to express a mood of assumption, as in:
I should think they would have heard from her by now.
EXPANDING YOUR VOCABULARY IS OF COURSE ACCOMPLISHED BY THE ADDITION OF NEW WORDS. HOWEVER, NEW USES FOR WORDS YOU ALREADY KNOW IS ANOTHER VERY PRODUCTIVE MEANS OF BROADENING YOUR RANGE OF EXPRESSION.
STAND
In addition to its standard definitions, stand has a great many idiomatic usages, in most cases determined by the preposition following it.
Among the most frequently used formulations are:
stand—to tolerate or put up with
It’s hard, but she can stand it.
stand up to someone/something—to refuse to be intimidated
The younger kid stood up to the bully.
stand up for someone/something—to defend or protect
They stood up for what they thought was right.
stand someone up—to fail to keep an appointment (without notice)
They were to meet at the restaurant, but she stood him up.
stand up (verb, adjective and noun [hyphenated])—to be valid, reliable; a kind of comedy
The case will not stand up in court.
He’s a stand-up guy.
Stand-up is a form of comedy that is customarily solo.
stand for—to represent; to believe in; to tolerate; to enter an election; to pay for
'U.S.A.' stands for United States of America.
Their group stands for affordable health care worldwide.
The union says the layoff is unfair and the employees won't stand for it.
He's standing for councilman in the upcoming election.
She stood for drinks for the whole group.
stand out (verb and noun [one word])—to be conspicuous
His good looks make him stand out from the ordinary. He’s a standout.
stand in for someone/something (verb and noun [hyphenated])—to take the place of
The understudy will stand in for the ailing actress. She’s the stand-in.
stand by (verb and noun [one word])—to wait before, or without, acting
The radio operator stood by, hoping for news.
They all stood by and watched, no-one tried to help.
Luckily, when the microphone failed, we had a standby.
stand around—to stand or congregate aimlessly
They stood around in front of the place all afternoon.
stand on—to insist
To stand on ceremony means to insist on being formal or polite.
stand off (verb and noun [one word])—at a distance; a draw
They stood off to the side.
It was a standoff, neither side had an advantage.
stand down—to withdraw from a position or duty
After the scandal, he stood down from his leadership role.
stand above—to remain aloof
He stood above all the inter-office gossip.
stand firm—to be adamant
He said he would stand firm against any effort to change the plan.
stand to—to be at the ready for (military) action
The troops will stand to until further notice.
stand-alone—self-sufficient, unsupported
It’s a stand-alone system requiring no additional components.
ONCE AGAIN, IMPROVING HEARING, AND HEARING CLUSTERS OF WORDS IN CONTEXT, WILL HELP YOU MASTER THE USE OF THESE EXPRESSIONS.
WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS IN ONE LANGUAGE DON'T ALWAYS DIRECTLY TRANSLATE INTO ANOTHER
International speakers of English often have difficulty distinguishing between similar English words, the meanings of which are all covered by one word in their native language. This is especially so for speakers of Asian languages which are typically more concise than English.
A single word in one language can have several 'cognates' in English, each with unique meanings, though often with considerable overlap.
For example, the words let, allow and have (all covered by the word ràng in Chinese) have different meanings and must be used accordingly:
let = to permit (casual); to make happen
allow = to permit (explicit); to admit, to assign an amount
have = to arrange, to command
I'll let you use my car when you're in town. [permit]
Let me know when you're coming. [make happen]
He passed the entrance exam, but his parents will not allow him to attend. [permit]
They allow that it is a good school, but it is too far away. [admit]
The school allows only two weeks for response. [assign an amount]
I'll have my assistant send you the documents right away. [arrange/command]
ONCE AGAIN, TRAINING YOUR LISTENING IS THE BEST MEANS OF UNDERSTANDING THE USAGES OF ENGLISH WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS. AS YOU BEGIN TO DISTINGUISH THE SUBTLETIES, YOU'LL BE ABLE TO FIGURE OUT HOW TO ACCURATELY ADAPT WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS FROM YOUR NATIVE LANGUAGE SO THAT YOUR MEANING AND USAGE IN ENGLISH IS CORRECT.
ENGLISH, PERHAPS ESPECIALLY AMERICAN ENGLISH (DUE TO THE WIDE VARIETY OF PEOPLE SPEAKING IT AS A SECOND LANGUAGE), IS HEAVILY IDIOMATIC. IDIOMS COME INTO USE AND ARE REPEATED AS SET EXPRESSIONS BECAUSE THEY CONVEY A LOT OF ASSOCIATED INFORMATION AND/OR FEELING IN JUST A FEW WORDS. IDIOMS ALSO FUNCTION AS A KIND OF CODE, DEFINING MEMBERSHIP IN THE GENERATIONAL, REGIONAL AND/OR ETHNIC GROUPS THAT KNOW AND USE THEM.
There are many different kinds of idiomatic expressions:
idioms -set expressions that are peculiar to themselves in regard to meaning or grammar
aphorisms -short, frequently amusing, statements of principle, often ascribed to famous people
proverbs -instructional sayings usually based on scripture or history
slang -non-standard language, often short-lived, used in casual circumstances only
bad or "dirty" words -strong language often considered inappropriate or offensive
It is necessary and important for international speakers of English to become acquainted with and know how to use appropriate idioms. The more such expressions are used and used correctly, the more identification with other speakers is enhanced, the more social membership is solidified. However, as with slang, idiomatic expressions can be tricky. It is therefore critical that you be aware of their propriety before using them.
For example:
He put his cards on the table. [correct]
He put his cards under the table. [incorrect]
The expression "put [one's] cards on the table" means to be open and honest.
The second version is incorrect because the preposition is wrong. "Under the table" is another, different, idiom meaning hidden or dishonest; as in:
He sold it to her under the table.
Note that some idioms are peculiar in grammar only. For example:
"It was me, not him …" is technically incorrect; however, the grammatically correct formulation ("It was I, not he…") has come to be considered too formal or strained.
Dictionaries of idiomatic expressions are periodically revised and updated, and may be very useful. However, don't be surprised if you can't find the expression you're looking for. There are so many colloquial expressions that even the best dictionaries have surprisingly many omissions.
AS IS THE CASE WITH SLANG, IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS CAN ADD SUBTLETY, NATURALNESS AND CHARM TO YOUR SPEECH. HOWEVER, BECAUSE THEY ARE OFTEN BASED ON CULTURAL OR HISTORICAL INFORMATION YOU MIGHT NOT KNOW, LEARNING THE CORRECT USE OF IDIOMS TAKES EXPERIENCE, AND EXPERIENCE TAKES TIME. ONCE AGAIN, IT'S A GOOD IDEA TO PAY ATTENTION AND TO ASK NATIVE SPEAKERS FOR CLARIFICATION-IT WILL BE WELL WORTH YOUR EFFORT.
FOREIGN EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH—1
When words in another language capture a particular thing, feeling or thought better than anything available in English, they are ‘imported’ into the language—first as exotic usages, then, in time, integrated to various degrees. Some designations are inherited, such as American Indian and Spanish place names in the United States. Sometimes foreign expressions are so unique, they simply cannot be translated and are used as-is—though often with an English ‘accent.’
There are also whole categories of foreign words that have entered English in the process of cultural exchange. For instance, French food terms like cuisine, menu, hors d’oeuvre; or musical terms from Italian like staccato, crescendo, a capella.
Foreign words and expressions have been coming into English since the beginning of the language, up to and including the present day. Many have been in use so long, they have become English, indistinguishable from more home-grown vocabulary (for example, ‘pajamas:’ from Hindi, from Persian; into English, c. 1883). Some terms retain their foreignness, but are so frequently employed that most native speakers are familiar with them. Newer words and expressions are currently in the process of being adopted, in the perpetual work-in-progress that is the English language.
Here are a few such foreign expressions currently common in English.
[For full definitions, etymologies, usage and pronunciation (with sound), you may wish to check Merriam-Webster Online at www.m-w.com.]
[Note that capitalization and/or diacritical marks required in the source language tend to fall away in English.]
from French:
au contraire—on the contrary
carte blanche—permission to exercise one’s will unconditionally
cause celebre—a celebrated case or issue
c’est la vie—such is life
c’est la guerre—such is war
chez—at the home or establishment of
coup d’etat—a sudden seizure of power, overthrowing existing rule
deja vu—a feeling of having had the same experience before
double entendre—a double or ambiguous meaning, often masking a sexual reference
fait accompli—an accomplished fact (implying accomplished without due consultation), typically unalterable
faux pas—a social error
genre—an artistic category based on form, style and/or content
joie de vivre—spirit, love of life
laissez-faire—minimum or no interference by authority in the conduct of private affairs
noblesse oblige—responsibility of the upper ranks or classes in regard to their social/economic inferiors
nouveau riche—newly rich
sans—without
from German:
angst—anxiety, dread, distress
bildungsroman—a novel concerning the early development of the main character
doppelganger—a double, real or imaginary, of another person
gestalt—a context, or whole, having a quality that is more than the sum of the parts
gestapo—military or police viewed as dangerous to the innocent
kitsch—cheap and/or tasteless sentiment or bric-a-brac; exaggerated, ‘camp,’ self-parodying
schadenfreude—malicious satisfaction in the misfortunes of others
sturm und drang—high drama and emotional urgency
zeitgeist—the thought and spirit characteristic of a place or time
from Latin:
ad hoc—formed for a specific purpose
ad infinitum—without end
ad nauseum—endless to the point of disgust
alma mater—the university or college one attended
bona fide—genuine
carpe diem—seize the day
caveat emptor—buyer beware
de facto—in fact
in situ—in its natural or original place
mea culpa—my fault
sic—thus, this way in the original
sui generis—one of a kind
via—by way of
In regard to typography, if the word in question is virtually English, there is no need for anything unusual. If, however, the word is still regarded as foreign, it’s best to distinguish this by putting the word(s) in italics or underlining them.
IF THE ENGLISH YOU HEAR SOUNDS STRANGE, IT MAY BE A FOREIGN EXPRESSION, SO PAY ATTENTION AND MAKE AN EFFORT TO INTEGRATE IT INTO YOUR EXPANDING VOCABULARY. IN A WORLD OF GLOBAL COMMUNICATION, FOREIGN EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH—PROBABLY INCLUDING WORDS FROM YOUR OWN NATIVE LANGUAGE—ARE DEFINITELY ON THE INCREASE.
FOREIGN EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH—2
When words in another language capture a particular thing, feeling or thought better than anything available in English, they are ‘imported’ into the language—first as exotic usages, then, in time, integrated to various degrees, though often with an English ‘accent.’ Many have been in use so long, they have become English. Some terms retain their foreignness, but are so frequently employed that most native speakers are comfortable using them.
Newer words and expressions are currently in the process of being adopted, in the perpetual work-in-progress that is the English language. If you’d like to be among the cognoscente (obsolete Italian: those ‘in-the-know’), you’ll want to be familiar with them.
Here are a few more foreign expressions currently common in English.
[For full definitions, etymologies, usage and pronunciation (with sound), you may wish to check Merriam-Webster Online at www.m-w.com.]
[Note that capitalization and/or diacritical marks required in the source language tends to fall away with use in English.]
chutzpah (Yiddish)—nerve, daring
klutz (Yiddish)—a clumsy person
maven (Yiddish)—an expert
nosh (Yiddish)—a snack / to snack
schmaltz (Yiddish)—something overly sentimental
cabal (Hebrew)—a group of conspirators; a conspiracy or plot
(Note: original meaning: ‘received [word of God]’, coming into French and English with a derogatory connotation of secretive intrigue.)
jihad (Arabic)—a struggle / a religious war
mecca (Arabic)—a destination for believers in something, or those with shared interest
(Note: the holy city of Mecca is capitalized)
sheik(h) (Arabic)—tribal head or leader
blarney (Irish)—loose, pretty or fanciful talk
feng-shui (Mandarin)—the Chinese art of geomancy (sacred geometry)
kowtow (Mandarin/Cantonese)—ritual bow of respect
(Note: this term has come into English with the derogatory connotation of obsequiousness.)
kungfu (Mandarin/Cantonese)—skill, particularly in martial arts
(Note: Mandarin and Cantonese origins are difficult to separate due to similarities in the languages.)
taipan (Cantonese)—a business tycoon (particularly a resident foreigner)
sauna (Finnish)—a heated or steamy room for a sweat bath
mafia (Italian)—organized enterprise functioning outside legal regulation
paparazzi (Italian)—news photographers
prima donna (Italian)—literally, principal female operatic soloist, but coming to mean a self-important and demanding person
apparatchik (Russian)—a bureaucratic functionary
czar (Russian)—a head of state or organization wielding great power
samizdat (Russian)—clandestinely published literature
aficionado (Spanish)—an enthusiast, a devotee
claro (Spanish)—plain to see, obvious
macho (Spanish)—hyper-masculine
futon (Japanese)—portable bedding
(Note: In a Western context, Asian nouns are pluralized with a final ‘S’—e.g.: The futons are being delivered tomorrow. However, in an Asian context, futon—no ‘S’—is both singular and plural—e.g.: Futon are still very common in Japan.)
kamikaze (Japanese)—suicide mission (military) personnel
bwana (Swahili)—boss
safari (Swahili)—expedition, caravan
guru (Sanskrit)—a spiritual guide
karma (Sanskrit)—fate determined by human action
mantra (Sanskrit)—a sacred sound or chant
nirvana (Sanskrit)—freedom from the cycle of karma
In regard to typography, if the word in question is virtually English, there is no need for anything unusual. If, however, the word is still regarded as foreign, it’s best to distinguish this by putting the word(s) in italics or underlining them.
IF THE ENGLISH YOU HEAR SOUNDS STRANGE, IT MAY BE A FOREIGN EXPRESSION, SO PAY ATTENTION AND MAKE AN EFFORT TO INTEGRATE IT INTO YOUR EXPANDING VOCABULARY. IN A WORLD OF GLOBAL COMMUNICATION, FOREIGN EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH—PROBABLY INCLUDING WORDS FROM YOUR OWN NATIVE LANGUAGE—ARE DEFINITELY ON THE INCREASE.