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TIPS
for International Speakers of English
USAGE TIPS
GENERAL USAGE OVERRIDES RULE
Most international speakers learn a rather formal version of English not really used by native speakers, complete with rules that, in many cases, native speakers ignore or have long since abandoned.
What is technically correct is not always the best choice. Whether written or spoken, many ‘correct’ usages sound too stilted or even point-proving.
For example:
“Split infinitives” (the insertion of one or more words between ‘to’ and a verb) still disturb perfectionists. However, there are cases when following this ‘rule’ is not advisable.
Correct but awkward:
It will be difficult ever to know what she said.
‘Incorrect’ but more natural:
It will be difficult to ever know what she said.
Adverb word order
Adverbs are technically supposed to come after verbs, but this doesn’t make sense in every case. In fact, stating the rule violates the rule:
Adverbs always follow the verb.
(No native speaker would ever say: adverbs follow always the verb.)
Ignoring the rule and sounding right:
She was greatly relieved to see him.
Following the rule and sounding wrong:
She was relieved greatly to see him.
Subject/object pronoun
Correct but awkward:
Alex is going; we haven’t heard from John, but probably he [is going] too.
‘Incorrect’ but more natural:
Alex is going; we haven’t heard from John, but probably him too.
Ending sentences with a preposition
Common:
There’s nothing for him to focus on.
Strange:
There’s nothing on which for him to focus.
Joke: The woman said she was going to kill herself because she had nothing to live for. The psychiatrist said OK, if she really wanted to end her life on a preposition.
Beginning sentences with a conjunction
In conversation, people often begin sentences with “And . . . .” or “But . . . .” or “Because . . . .” Though it’s still considered best to avoid such usage in formal writing, initial conjunctions are often used in more casual writing as a way of linking thoughts or feelings, as well as in literary writing to simulate a colloquial tone.
The difference between was and were
Was is the past tense of be and were is the ‘subjunctive’ form of be, expressing doubt, possibility, etc. However, the distinction is increasingly regarded as a fine point.
If I was correct, why didn’t he admit it?
If I were you, I’d ask him.
The difference between effect and affect
Affect, accented on the second syllable (a-FECT), is a verb ("have an influence on").
Accented on the first syllable (AFF-ect), it has the rarely used meaning of "emotion.”
Effect, as a noun, means “result.” As a verb, it means "to create.”
When you affect a situation, you have an effect on it.
However, if you make too much of the distinction between these words, people may think you’re affected (pretentious).
THE POINT OF LANGUAGE IS COMMUNICATION, NOT THE FULFILLMENT OF ABSTRACT GRAMMATICAL CRITERIA. WHEN SPEAKING A SECOND LANGUAGE, SPEAK IT THE WAY THE NATIVES DO—THEY’RE ALWAYS AHEAD OF THE BOOKS.
SOFTENERS
At some point, most international speakers of English learn how to add emphasis to both their spoken and written English. However, usually little attention is paid to the opposite—how to soften the language. As with emphasis, all languages have various ways of softening, depending on cultural context.
Softeners are characteristically pleasant, vague, indirect, inoffensive, tentative alternatives to more undesirable, blatant, direct, unflattering or definite communication. They are used in a number of typical situations, such as ‘ice-breaker’ conversation openers when people are becoming acquainted, ‘small-talk’ to fill some time, when a pause may be needed to remember something or change direction, when it’s desirable to avoid confrontation, when the subject matter is unwelcome, harsh or distressing, when the speaker wishes to save his or her face, or the face of the person he or she is addressing, or that of a third party.
As with emphasis, it’s easier to soften your communication when speaking because a variety of methods are available, such as:
lower volume and mild tone of voice
facial expression and body language
speaking more slowly and/or articulating the word(s) more carefully
using euphemisms (substitute expressions) or words with weak connotation
using ‘spacer’ expressions like ‘well,’ ‘um,’ ‘ah’
contracting (e.g., changing I am to I’m)
placing minor components close to the end of the sentence
In writing, typographical elements such as parentheses, brackets or smaller typeface will reduce the impact.
The use of certain words also has a softening effect. For example:
They may wish to just visit the club around the end of the year.
We’ll try to get there more or less on time.
It’s the kind of thing I thought he might like.
Be careful, however, to use softening with discrimination, not just out of confusion or intimidation, as such motivations will simply complicate or weaken what you are trying to communicate. For example:
Patron: Is the library open on Martin Luther King day?
Clerk: Ah, um, I think so.
What does this mean? Will the library be open or not? Meaningless softening like this can be counterproductive.
REMEMBER, AS WITH SALT WHEN COOKING, YOU CAN ALWAYS ADD MORE EMPHASIS, BUT IT’S DIFFICULT TO LESSEN. YOU HAVE MORE CONTROL IF YOU BEGIN SOFTLY.
ADDING EMPHASIS IN ENGLISH
When speaking, there are a variety of ways, depending on cultural context, to add emphasis to language, among which are:
raising the volume, and/or changing the emotional tone, of the voice
speaking more slowly or more quickly
articulating the word(s) more carefully
facial expression and body language
repeating the word(s) or phrase(s)
extra words
words with strong connotation
un-contracting (e.g., changing I’m to I am)
placing important elements close to the beginning of the sentence
However, some of these methods are not available when writing. For written language, one must rely on additional means of adding emphasis, such as:
exclamation point(s)
unusual typography, like capital letters, italics, bold, underline and/or larger type
Spoken or written, meaning can be altered depending on where emphasis is placed. For example:
She is applying for that job.
She is applying for that job. (not he)
She is applying for that job. (contrary to the assumption that she isn’t)
She is applying for that job. (not interviewing for it)
She is applying for that job. (not this or the other one)
She is applying for that job. (not for that scholarship)
When writing, emphasis can be added by introducing strong and/or extra words. For instance:
Please tell him he must be on time. (neutral)
Please do tell him he must be on time. (more emphatic)
Please emphasize that he must be on time. (more emphatic)
Please do emphasize that he must be on time. (even more emphatic)
I reminded him to be on time, but he was late. (neutral)
Indeed, I even reminded him to be on time, but he was still late. (more emphatic)
Placing an element at or near the beginning of the sentence heightens its importance. For example:
On Sunday, there will be a soccer match between two teams from Canada.
A soccer match between two teams from Canada will take place on Sunday.
Two teams from Canada will compete in Sunday’s soccer match.
THOUGH THE MEANS OF ADDING EMPHASIS ARE GENERALLY THE SAME ACROSS LANGUAGES, DIFFERENT CULTURES HAVE SUBTLY DIFFERENT WAYS OF EXPRESSING THEM. TO BECOME MORE PROFICIENT IN USING EMPHASIS WHEN COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH, THE MORE YOU LISTEN TO AND OBSERVE NATIVE SPEAKERS, THE BETTER YOU WILL NATURALLY DO IT.
CONNOTATION IS THE MEANING SUGGESTED OR IMPLIED BY A WORD, A MEANING NOT EXPLICIT IN ITS DEFINITION.
Connotation can situate an otherwise neutral word in a context or mood that supercedes the explicit meaning.
For example, international speakers of English often say "clever," when intelligence would be a better word. Intelligence is neutral, an intelligent being can be good, bad or whatever. On the other hand, "clever" can have the connotation of plotting, scheming or trickery; it is a characteristic associated with cunning or mischievousness.
Taking the example further, the word cunning means astute, crafty, skillful. However, to say that someone is "cunning" can also suggest s/he is calculating or manipulative.
SO PAY ATTENTION TO THE CONTEXT AND MOOD IN WHICH YOU HEAR OR READ NEW WORDS. MAKE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND THE CONNOTATION AND USE, AS WELL AS THE DEFINITION.
MORE ABOUT CONNOTATION
Connotation adds meaning to words or expressions beyond their literal definition. It can do this through implication or association, by tilting the definition one way or another, or by suggesting mood or emotionality. Connotation can convey relative intensity, and can also imbue words and expressions with positive or negative feeling. Appreciation of connotation is crucial in regard to translating from your native language into English.
For example, the words miffed, angry and enraged all express annoyance or irritation. However, they range from mild to strong in intensity, respectively.
She was miffed that he didn’t call on time.
They’ll be angry when they discover the house has been robbed.
The soldiers are enraged because the deaths were caused by mismanagement.
Words and phrases can carry positive and negative connotations as well. For instance, the word motivated is neutral, the word ambitious has a slight negative connotation, and the word obsessive has a strong negative connotation.
He’s motivated to succeed at college because his parents struggled to provide the opportunity.
The new recruits are known to be ambitious, and everyone in the company is watching their every move.
The CEO’s drive to vindicate past failure is considered obsessive by those who’ve been working with her.
A few other examples:
thin is neutral, skinny is somewhat negative, slender is positive
mature is neutral, old can be negative, older and elderly are more polite
self-respect is neutral, pride is stronger and can be negative, arrogance is extreme and always negative
Some words or phrases, or well-known dramatic characters, become so closely associated with particular meaning that they tend to carry it with them into all contexts. For instance:
white bread = ordinary or mainstream
granola = alternate lifestyle
stars and stripes = U.S.A.
Romeo = a lover
Shylock = a usurer or opportunist
Keep in mind that connotation, while typically shared by speakers of a language, is subjective and liable to change. For example, the word intuition, previously associated with women when social respect for the female sex was low, had the negative connotation of being illogical and superstitious. With the increasing influence of feminist politics (and Eastern philosophy), however, intuition has been rehabilitated, and is now regarded as a positive and powerful mental function.
IN ORDER TO SKILLFULLY AND APPROPRIATELY USE ENGLISH, INTERNATIONAL SPEAKERS NEED TO APPRECIATE THE CONNOTATION OF WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS AND THE CONTEXT IN WHICH THEY ARE USED. THIS WAY YOU’LL ENHANCE BOTH YOUR UNDERSTANDING AND YOUR ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE.
IT CAN SOMETIMES BE FRUSTRATING THAT ONE MUST ALREADY KNOW THE MEANING OF WORDS IN ORDER TO USE A DICTIONARY TO FIND OUT THE MEANING OF WORDS.
International speakers of English often run into trouble with the use of dictionaries designed for native speakers who already have a well-established vocabulary. How are speakers of English as a second language supposed to understand the meaning of a word if they don't know the words the dictionary is using to define it?
Start out with dictionaries designed for beginners. These will define the word you're looking up in basic language which likely you already know. As your vocabulary increases, you'll be able to handle standard dictionaries. Electronic or on-line dictionaries are especially useful to international speakers of English because of their speed and flexibility.
THE IRONY IS THAT THE ABILITY TO USE A DICTIONARY IMPROVES WITH LITERACY. DEPENDING ON THE TIME AVAILABLE, TRY TO LOOK UP UNFAMILIAR WORDS THAT APPEAR IN THE DEFINITION OF THE WORD YOU WERE ORIGINALLY CHECKING-A PROCESS WHICH, DEPENDING ON HOW MUCH YOU ARE ENJOYING IT, CAN TURN OUT TO BE VIRTUALLY ENDLESS!
DEPARTMENT OF REDUNDANCY DEPARTMENT
Redundant means unnecessarily repetitive.
For the sake of good style, and to avoid confusion, it is desirable to avoid redundancy in any language. Here are some tips for avoiding redundancy in English.
Avoid restating the meaning of the word.
Some examples:
Renovate means renew (make new again). Therefore, saying 'the apartment has been newly renovated' is redundant.
Revert means turn back. Therefore, saying 'revert back' is redundant.
Exaggerate means overstate. Therefore, saying ‘overexaggerate’ is redundant.
A mistake is by definition, incorrect. Therefore, saying 'an incorrect mistake' is redundant-and confusing.
Notice that in the above cases, the prefix has already added the desired meaning:
renovate re-do revert (prefix re = again or back)
mistake (prefix mis = wrongly)
Regardless means without regard. Therefore, saying ‘irregardless’ is redundant.
In this case, the suffix (less) has already added the desired meaning.
Be careful not to use a second word (like ‘too’ or ‘also’) when a previous word (like ‘so’ or ‘additionally’) may have already suggested it, as in:
Critics loved it and so did the public too.
Additionally, there is also doubtful information.
Also, avoid using different forms of the same word.
For example:
Compared to him, she is quick in comparison.
And avoid duplicating the comparative, such as:
It will be more better if he comes tomorrow. (Adding 'more' is redundant because 'better' is already the comparative form of 'good.')
One more thing to avoid is a redundant pronoun; as in:
My cousin often goes to the library. (NOT: My cousin, she often goes to the library.)
However, some redundant usages have become idiomatic expressions in their own right.
For example:
added bonus
safe haven
close proximity
Sometimes redundancy is used for emphasis.
For example, 'sum total' is more emphatic than just 'total.'
Note that some usages that may at first appear redundant are not. For instance:
He rescheduled the appointment last week, then called on Monday to reschedule again.
Then there are tricky redundancies, like 'ATM machine' (Automatic Teller Machine). In this case, if you said 'AT machine,' it would be technically more correct, but no-one would know what you mean!
SO PAY ATTENTION TO INADVERTENT REDUNDANCY. YOU DON'T WANT TO REPEAT UNLESS THERE'S SOME REASON FOR DOING SO.
CLASSIFIERS AND MEASURE WORDS
Though English does not have as many words functioning as 'classifiers' and 'measure words' as some other languages (especially Asian languages), it does have them. Some are optional, others are not.
Some words requiring classifiers:
sheet or piece of paper
school of fish
flock of birds
bar of soap / chocolate
pair of pants / (eye)glasses
block of ice / wood
stick of butter / chewing gum
herd of cows / horses
grain of salt / sugar / rice
team of horses
ball of wax
fleck of dirt
head of lettuce
bunch of grapes / bananas
pack of cards / cigarettes / chewing gum
cup of tea / coffee
bale of hay / cotton
bolt of cloth
Note that you can say: "Please give me the (eye)glasses." You can also say: "Please give me the soap and the lettuce." However, you cannot say: "Please give me a (eye)glasses" or "a soap" or "a lettuce," but must add "pair of," "bar of" and "head of," respectively (as in "a head of lettuce"). Also, both "a sheet (or piece) of paper" and "the sheet (or piece) of paper" require the use of the classifier.
Also note: 'two bars of soap' is correct; 'two bar of soaps' is incorrect.
Some measure words denoting specific quantities:
fortnight = two weeks (14 nights)
decade = 10 years
century = 100 years
millennium = 1000 years
dozen = 12
score = 20
fathom = water 6 ft deep
ream = 500 sheets of paper
LISTS OF CLASSIFIERS AND MEASURE WORDS ARE HELPFUL, BUT IN SPECIFIC USE THERE IS SO MUCH VARIATION THAT THEY CANNOT FUNCTION AS COMPLETE GUIDES. THUS, AGAIN, THE BEST WAY TO LEARN THESE WORDS IS TO LISTEN AND WATCH FOR THEM AS THEY OCCUR IN EVERYDAY USE.
WHEN MEETING SOMEONE FOR THE FIRST TIME, IT IS CUSTOMARY TO SAY:
"NICE TO MEET YOU."
IT IS INCORRECT, ON FIRST MEETING, TO SAY "NICE TO SEE YOU."
International speakers of English often confuse two greetings that are similar in wording but quite different in meaning:
Nice to meet you.
Nice to see you.
When meeting someone for the first time, it is appropriate to say: "Nice to meet you." If you have already met the person (or if you already know the person), the more general greeting: "Nice to see you" is used.
YOU SAY "NICE TO MEET YOU" ONLY THE FIRST TIME. THEREAFTER, YOU SAY "NICE TO SEE YOU" WHENEVER YOU SEE THAT PERSON, OR ANYONE YOU ALREADY KNOW.
YOU CANNOT ALWAYS BE CERTAIN THAT A DIRECT TRANSLATION FROM YOUR NATIVE LANGUAGE WILL CONVEY THE SAME MEANING IN ENGLISH.
For instance, international speakers of English sometimes say "I know" when the appropriate statement in English would be "I see."
As an example:
If someone says: "He'll be here on Sunday", you can say: "I know" if you already know that information. You can say "I see" if your meaning is that you understand.
However, if someone says: "You're taking the green copy, but you're supposed to take the blue one", you need to say: "I see." To say "I know" in this case is incorrect. (If you did know, you would be taking the blue one.) In this situation, it could even sound arrogant to say "I know."
SO BE CAREFUL. IF THE STATEMENT TO WHICH YOU ARE RESPONDING IS SOMETHING YOU ACTUALLY KNOW, BY ALL MEANS, SAY "I KNOW." HOWEVER, IF YOU DIDN'T OR DON'T ACTUALLY KNOW, "I SEE" (WHICH IS LIKE SAYING "I UNDERSTAND") IS THE CORRECT RESPONSE.
IN ENGLISH, THERE IS A VERY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SAYING SO MUCH (OR MANY) AND TOO MUCH (OR MANY).
Both expressions convey the meaning of 'a lot,' 'a great deal.' However, too much has the additional implication of 'excess,' and you must be careful it is not inadvertently interpreted as a judgement.
For example:
If you say:
"Oh, you have so many cars!"-this is a simple observation implying a large number of cars.
If you say:
"Oh, you have too many cars!"-this statement implies excess, and perhaps even a negative judgement on your part, suggesting that the person to whom you are speaking is to be blamed for having more cars than you consider appropriate.
SO BE CAREFUL. IN WISHING TO EXPRESS A LOT OR A LARGE NUMBER OR AMOUNT OF SOMETHING, ALWAYS USE SO MUCH (OR SO MANY). USE TOO MUCH (OR TOO MANY) ONLY WHEN YOU WISH TO MAKE A STATEMENT IMPLYING EXCESS, OR WISH TO INTENTIONALLY EXPRESS A STRONG OPINION.
ARTICLES ARE NOT ONLY NECESSARY FOR THE CORRECT SOUND OF ENGLISH, THEY CAN AFFECT MEANING AS WELL.
English has what international (especially Asian) speakers regard as "extra" words-words that are not used in their native languages, such as articles and prepositions.
However, not only are these words necessary for the correct sound of English, they can affect meaning as well. For example, the simple indefinite article "a"-
Here are two sentences, almost exactly the same:
A) There are a few people in the room.
B) There are few people in the room.
QUESTION:
How many people would you say are in room "A"?
How many people would you say are in room "B"?
ANSWER:
Sentence "A" implies there are about 3 to 10 people in the room, relative to its size.
Sentence "B" implies that there are hardly any people in the room, almost none.
This small difference in meaning can be problematic if you're not careful.
For example, in the sentence:
"The CEO has (a) few areas of expertise."-the presence or absence of the indefinite article "a" constitutes the difference between a complimentary, positive statement and a derogatory, negative statement, respectively.
AS YOU CAN SEE, THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE, WHILE IT MAY SEEM "EXTRA" IN SOME USAGES, IS IN OTHER CASES ABSOLUTELY PERTINENT IN REGARD TO MEANING. SO PAY ATTENTION, IN CONVERSATION AND IN READING-YOU'LL BE ABLE TO SPOT THE DIFFERENCE AND BEGIN TO KNOW WHEN TO USE IT IN YOUR OWN SPEECH AND WRITING.
INTERNATIONAL SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH OFTEN CONFUSE THE USE OF SPEND (IN TERMS OF TIME OR MONEY) WITH THE USE OF TAKE AND COST.
In English, I can make the active/first-person statement that I spend time or that I spend money.
For example:
I spent three hours getting here.
I spent several hundred dollars.
However, if the passive/third-person (it) construction is used, spend must change to take and cost, respectively.
As in :
It took three hours getting here.
It cost several hundred dollars.
In other words, saying: 'It spent me three hours getting here' is incorrect.
Note:
The past tense of cost is cost-not costed.
In the present tense, the above sentence would be:
It costs several hundred dollars.
SO PAY ATTENTION TO SPEND/TAKE/COST. IT IS ONE OF THOSE IDIOMATIC USAGES OF ENGLISH THAT CANNOT BE PREDICTED AND FOLLOWS NO RULE. INTERNATIONAL SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH CAN LEARN THE PROPER USE OF TERMS LIKE THESE BY LISTENING CAREFULLY TO NATIVE SPEAKERS. AS TIME GOES BY, YOU WILL MASTER SUCH USAGES ONE BY ONE.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GOOD AND WELL
Although there is considerable overlap in the uses of good and well, basically good is an adjective and well is an adverb. Even native speakers can mix them up, and these words are especially problematic for international speakers of English.
For instance:
He is a good puppy, he has been trained well.
What kind of puppy (noun)? A good puppy. (adjective)
How has he been trained (verb)? Well. (adverb)
However, instances of overlap can be confusing.
For example:
I feel good—means I don’t feel bad.
I feel well—means I don’t feel sick.
IN REGARD TO GOOD AND WELL, WHEN YOU ARE MODIFYING A NOUN, GENERALLY CHOOSE GOOD. WHEN YOU ARE MODIFYING A VERB, GENERALLY USE WELL.
YES/NO QUESTIONS (QUESTIONS, THE ANSWERS TO WHICH-BARRING EQUIVOCAL RESPONSE-ARE EITHER YES OR NO) ARE VERY CONVENIENT. HOWEVER, THEY'RE NOT THE BEST IN TERMS OF ACCURATE COMMUNICATION, ESPECIALLY FOR INTERNATIONAL SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH.
The first thing to consider in regard to yes/no questions is that, by definition, there are only two answers. Hence there is a fair chance that the person to whom you are addressing the question will answer incorrectly-either through carelessness or error.
Secondly, if your English is somewhat limited in vocabulary, dubious as to grammar, and/or heavily accented, there is increased chance that your question will be misunderstood, and the answer given may, inadvertently, be incorrect.
It is therefore best for international speakers of English to phrase questions in such a way as the answer will require words specific to the conversation.
For example:
Q: Will the car be ready at 4 o'clock?
A: (Yes/No)
Q: When will the car be ready?
A: . . . .
SO TRY, WHENEVER POSSIBLE, TO PHRASE QUESTIONS IN SUCH A WAY AS TO AVOID YES/NO ANSWERS.
HERE’S A VERY USEFUL HINT FOR USING THE FIND AND SEARCH COMMANDS IN COMPUTERIZED DOCUMENTS AND ON THE INTERNET.
When looking for a certain word in a word-processed document or on the Web, keep in mind that the word for which you are searching could well appear in another form. For example, it could appear with a different suffix (the tag at the end of the word denoting part of speech).
For instance, if you want to see if the document contains anything about exploration, the best search would be for explor [no ‘e’ or any suffix]—this will find the basic word in various of the forms in which it might appear: explore, explores, explored, exploring, explorer, explorers, exploratory, or exploration.
In other words, if you search for the root of the word, the search will turn up the basic word wherever it appears, in whole or in part. Whereas, if you were to search for exploration, you will find only that, missing all other possible references.
The ‘Find’ command in internet browsers, however, is more literal—finding exactly what is asked for. If, for example, when searching a page you get no results for Persia, try Persian.
REMEMBER, YOU HAVE A MUCH BETTER CHANCE OF LOCATING THE WORD YOU’RE LOOKING FOR IF YOU SEARCH FOR IT IN THE FORM OF ITS ROOT, RATHER THAN ANY SPECIFIC PART OF SPEECH.
POETIC ENGLISH
No doubt most international speakers of English have enough to do just learning the language and gaining proficiency in their areas of specialization—without even thinking about poetry. And some may doubt whether, compared to their native language, English can be poetic at all.
Of course, English can be poetic, and you don’t have to be a poet or write poetry to appreciate the poetic uses of English and to make use of poetic forms yourself.
All languages have means of being poetic, or otherwise adding style or drawing attention—here are some examples of poetic techniques in English:
rhyme—similarity in the sound of words or word endings
“Red skies in the morning, sailors take warning;
Red skies at night, sailors’ delight.”
alliteration—sequence of words beginning with the same sound
They threatened to deploy a doomsday device of devastating destruction.
onomatopoeia—words that imitate the sound associated with the thing or action
ding-dong
buzz
thud
parallelism—repetition of similar words or structure
“Ask, and it shall be given you;
seek, and ye shall find;
knock, and it shall be opened unto you:
For every one that asketh receiveth;
and he that seeketh findeth;
and to him that knocketh it shall be opened.”
metaphor—direct (but not literal) comparison
That guy is a dirty dog.
“All the world’s a stage . . . .“
I saw a raven-haired beauty in a sea of blonds.
simile—similar to metaphor, but using a linking word like ‘as’ or ‘like’
The tunnel was black as night and she ran like the wind.
hyperbole (a.k.a. ”hype”)—overstatement or exaggeration
I’ve told him a thousand times not to exaggerate.
understatement—deliberately less forceful or dramatic than is the case
When told the flight was delayed, he was less than pleased.
pun—play on words
When he ran out of whisky, he became dis-spirited.
allusion—reference to or association with something or someone well known
She acts like she’s on Mount Olympus. [home of the Greek gods]
personification—attribution of human qualities to objects or concepts
The heavens smiled on them, but jealousy reared its ugly head.
euphemism—use of a substitute word or phrase more pleasant, vague or indirect than what it replaces
These days mature women dress more fashionably. [rather than ‘old’]
They’ve had a difference of opinion. [rather than ‘argument’]
oxymoron—contradiction in terms
a definite maybe
legalized crime
Another common means of poetic form is the figurative, as compared to the literal, use of words and expressions. For example, deluge literally means ‘to flood’—however, it can also be applied figuratively (meaning to overwhelm), as in:
At the end of the fiscal year, they’re always deluged with work.
WHILE ALL ENGLISH SPEAKERS MAY NOT BE POETS, WE CAN ALL BE POETIC IN OUR USE OF THE LANGUAGE. THIS IS PERHAPS ESPECIALLY TRUE OF INTERNATIONAL SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH, WHO OFTEN COME UP WITH THINGS NATIVE SPEAKERS NEVER THINK OF.
NEW USAGES
Like all living things, languages are constantly changing and adapting to the demands of their times. This is especially so with English, currently used politically, professionally, culturally and socially all over the world.
Primarily, the new usages (called neologisms) involve employing words in previously non-standard parts of speech, such as: nouns used as verbs (like ‘message’), verbs used as nouns (like ‘hire’), adjectives used as nouns (like ‘visual’), adjectives used as verbs (like ‘moot’), new formulations (like ‘do-able’), verbs used in unusual constructions (like ‘disappear’); adjectives substituting for ‘lost’ nouns, acronyms and abbreviations used as words.
These new applications are no problem for native speakers. However, for international speakers of English, they can sometimes confuse an already confusing situation. As you hear non-standard forms be careful to distinguish new usages, which you’ll hear repeatedly, from simple one-time mistakes.
Here are some of the new coinages coming into English, virtually on a daily basis.
visual (adj)—used as a noun
How many visuals will you be presenting?
hire (verb)—used as a noun
When are the new hires arriving?
expense (noun)—used as a verb
He not only expensed the hotel room, but all their meals as well.
transition (noun)—used as a verb
He’ll be transitioning to the sales department at the end of the month.
moot (adj)—used as a verb
The point has been mooted.
image (noun)—used as a verb
Before surgery, they routinely image the target area from different angles.
take (verb)—used as a noun
My take on his proposal is that it’s not going to work.
tech (noun, abbrev. of technician)—as a verb
Who is teching this job?
anonymous (adj)—used as a verb
To anonymize your comment, leave this space blank.
instance (noun)—used as a verb
Next, I would instance his many speeches on the subject.
party (noun)—used as a verb
They’re going to party the entire trip.
obsolete (adj)—used as a verb
They recently obsoleted this model due to poor sales.
absent (adj)—used as a preposition
Absent up-to-date information, we won’t be able to proceed as planned.
out (prep)—used as a verb
His sexual orientation was outed when he was seen with his boyfriend.
The school board outed his criminal record when he applied for a job.
message (noun)—used as a verb
I messaged him but haven’t gotten a reply.
liaison (noun)—used as a verb
They’ll liaise with the marketing group as soon as the report is complete.
incentive (noun)—used as a verb
They’re offering extra vacation days to incentivize the staff.
foreground / background (nouns)—used as verbs
News items appear more important when you foreground them, less so if they’re backgrounded.
disappear (verb)—used in the infinitive, and in the passive mode
To disappear the screen-saver, click the corner of the display.
Hundreds of dissidents were disappeared by the dictatorship.
do-able (new construction)—used as an adjective
The assignment is difficult, but do-able.
Additionally, there are adjectives coming to represent the noun they modify—like the ‘remote control’ becoming simply the remote; acronyms like ASAP and AIDS functioning as words; and abbreviations, like rev (as in ‘rev the engine’—from ‘revolutions per minute’) or rep (for both ‘repetition’ and ‘representative’), used as commonly as the originals.
Whether it’s an existing word that’s previously not been commonly used in that form (like ‘liaise’), or it’s a usage that’s been somewhat modified (like ‘expense’), or it’s an entirely new expression (like ‘do-able’), you’ll want to be aware of these new applications of standard words.
JUST WHEN YOU THOUGHT YOU’VE GOT ENGLISH FIGURED OUT, IF WHAT YOU HEAR SOUNDS A LITTLE FUNNY, IT MAY SIMPLY BE YET ANOTHER NEW USAGE JUST NOW COMING INTO VOGUE.